Molecular biosensors capable of signal amplification

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides molecular biosensors capable of signal amplification, and methods of using the molecular biosensors to detect the presence of a target molecule.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/578,718, filed Sep. 14, 2012 which is a US National application of PCT Application PCT/US2011/024547, filed Feb. 11, 2011, which claims the priority of U.S. provisional application No. 61/303,914, filed Feb. 12, 2010, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to molecular biosensors capable of signal amplification. The biosensors may be used to determine whether a target molecule is present in a sample.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The detection, identification and quantification of specific molecules in our environment, food supply, water supply and biological samples (blood, cerebral spinal fluid, urine, et cetera) can be very complex, expensive and time consuming. Methods utilized for detection of these molecules include gas chromatography, mass spectroscopy, DNA sequencing, immunoassays, cell-based assays, biomolecular blots and gels, and myriad other multi-step chemical and physical assays.

There continues to be a high demand for convenient methodologies for detecting and measuring the levels of specific proteins in biological and environmental samples. Detecting and measuring levels of proteins is one of the most fundamental and most often performed methodologies in biomedical research. While antibody-based protein detection methodologies are enormously useful in research and medical diagnostics, they are typically not well adapted to rapid, high throughput parallel protein detection. Hence, there is a need in the art for effective, simple signal amplification and detection means.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The application file contains at least one photograph executed in color. Copies of this patent application publication with color photographs will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

FIG. 1 depicts the overall design and function of a two-component molecular biosensor comprising a single nicking site.

FIG. 2 depicts the overall design and function of a two-component molecular biosensor comprising two nicking sites.

FIG. 3 depicts the overall design and function of a three-component molecular biosensor comprising a signaling oligonucleotide attached to a bead.

FIG. 4 (A) an agarose gel resolving the digestion products of a three-component molecular biosensor attached to a bead, when increasing concentrations of the target are added. (B) Quantification results of digestion products in (A) using a densitometer.

FIG. 5 depicts FAM signal increase in supernatant when increasing concentrations of the target are added to a three-component molecular biosensor attached to a bead.

FIG. 6 depicts anti-HRP ELISA signal increase in supernatant when increasing concentrations of the target are added to a three-component molecular biosensor attached to a bead. Molecular biosensor, target and restriction enzyme were added simultaneously.

FIG. 7 depicts FAM signal increase in supernatant with increasing concentrations of the target when the restriction enzyme is added after incubation of a target with a three-component molecular biosensor attached to a bead.

FIG. 8 depicts the overall design and function of a three-component molecular biosensor comprising a signaling oligonucleotide attached to a solid surface.

FIG. 9 depicts FAM signal increase (A) or HRP ELISA signal increase (B) in supernatant with increasing concentrations of the target using a three-component molecular biosensor attached to a solid surface.

FIG. 10 depicts the overall design and function of a three-component molecular biosensor comprising a signaling oligonucleotide not attached to a solid support.

FIG. 11 depicts FAM signal increase with increasing concentrations of the target using a three-component molecular biosensor not attached to a solid support.

FIG. 12 depicts the overall design and function of a three-component molecular biosensor comprising a signaling oligonucleotide not attached to a solid support, using a restriction endonuclease that cleaves outside the recognition sequence.

FIG. 13 depicts the use of a three-component molecular biosensor for detection of double-stranded nucleotide sequence binding proteins.

FIG. 14 depicts the use of a three-component molecular biosensor for detection of ligands of double-stranded nucleotide sequence binding proteins.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention encompasses a molecular biosensor capable of signal amplification. Such a biosensor may be used to detect a target molecule. In one embodiment, the biosensor is comprised of two components, which comprise two epitope-binding agent constructs. Alternatively, in another embodiment, the biosensor is comprised of three components, which comprise two epitope-binding agent constructs and an oligonucleotide construct comprising a restriction enzyme recognition site. Each of these embodiments is discussed in more detail below.

Advantageously, a molecular biosensor of the invention, irrespective of the embodiment, is capable of signal amplification and provides a rapid homogeneous means to detect a variety of target molecules, including but not limited to proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, macromolecules, and analytes.

I. Two-Component Molecular Biosensors

One aspect of the invention encompasses a two-component biosensor and methods of use thereof. For a two-component biosensor, detection of a target molecule typically involves target-molecule induced co-association of two epitope-binding agent constructs (R¹—R²—R³ and R⁴—R⁵—R⁶) that each recognize distinct epitopes on the target molecule. The epitope-binding agent constructs each comprise a single-stranded nucleotide sequence (R³ and R⁶). Each single-stranded sequence comprises a complementary sequence (R⁸ and R⁹). Additionally, at least one single-stranded sequence comprises a restriction endonuclease recognition site (R⁷). Association of the epitope binding agents (R¹ and R⁴) with a target molecule results in annealing of the complementary sequences (R⁸ and R⁹) of the single-stranded nucleotide sequences, such that when the complementary regions are extended in the presence of a polymerase, a double-stranded endonuclease recognition site is reconstituted. The newly synthesized double-stranded recognition sequence may be nicked by a nicking restriction endonuclease that recognizes the reconstituted restriction enzyme recognition site. A DNA polymerase may then extend a second nucleic acid from the nick, thereby displacing the first nicked strand to form a displaced strand. The second extended strand may then be nicked, repeating the extension and displacement steps such that multiple copies of the displaced strand are produced, thereby amplifying the signal from the biosensor. The displaced strand may then be detected via several different methods.

The structure of the biosensor and methods of using the biosensor are discussed in more detail below.

(a) Biosensor Structure

In exemplary embodiments, a two-component molecular biosensor capable of signal amplification comprises two constructs, which together have formula (I):

R¹—R²—R³; and

R⁴—R⁵—R⁶;  (I)

wherein:

-   -   R¹ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a first epitope on         a target molecule;     -   R² is a flexible linker attaching R¹ to R³;     -   R³ is a single stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁷ and         R⁸;         -   R⁷ is a nucleotide sequence comprising at least one             restriction endonuclease recognition site;         -   R⁸ is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁹;     -   R⁶ is a single stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁹;         -   R⁹ is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁸, such that             when R⁸ and         -   R⁹ associate to form an annealed complex in the presence of             a polymerase, R⁸ and R⁹ are extended by the polymerase to             form a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁷, forming at             least one double-stranded endonuclease recognition site;     -   R⁵ is a flexible linker attaching R⁴ to R⁶;     -   R⁴ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a second epitope on         a target molecule.

As will be appreciated by those of skill in the art, the choice of epitope binding agents, R¹ and R⁴, in molecular biosensors having formula (I) can and will vary depending upon the particular target molecule. By way of example, when the target molecule is a protein, R¹ and R⁴ may be an aptamer, or antibody. By way of further example, when R¹ and R⁴ are double stranded nucleic acid the target molecule is typically a macromolecule that binds to DNA or a DNA binding protein. In general, suitable choices for R¹ and R⁴ will include two agents that each recognize distinct epitopes on the same target molecule. In certain embodiments, however, it is also envisioned that R¹ and R⁴ may recognize distinct epitopes on different target molecules. Non-limiting examples of suitable epitope binding agents may include agents selected from the group consisting of an aptamer, an antibody, an antibody fragment, a double-stranded DNA sequence, modified nucleic acids, nucleic acid mimics (e.g. LNA or PNA), a ligand, a ligand fragment, a receptor, a receptor fragment, a polypeptide, a peptide, a coenzyme, a coregulator, an allosteric molecule, a chemical entity and an ion.

In one embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each aptamers having a sequence ranging in length from about 20 to about 110 bases. In another embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each antibodies or antibody-like binders selected from the group consisting of polyclonal antibodies, ascites, Fab fragments, Fab′ fragments, monoclonal antibodies, humanized antibodies, chimeric antibodies, single chain antibodies, and non-immunoglobulin scaffolds such as Affibodies, Anticalins, designed Ankyrin repeat proteins and others. In an alternative embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are peptides. In an exemplary embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each monoclonal antibodies. In an additional embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each double stranded DNA. In a further embodiment, R¹ is a double stranded nucleic acid and R⁴ is an aptamer. In an additional embodiment, R¹ is an antibody and R⁴ is an aptamer. In another additional embodiment, R¹ is an antibody and R⁴ is a double stranded DNA.

In an additional embodiment for molecular biosensors having formula (I), exemplary linkers, R² and R⁵, will functionally keep R³ and R⁶ in close proximity such that when R¹ and R⁴ each bind to the target molecule, R⁸ and R⁹ associate in a manner such that a detectable signal is produced. R² and R⁵ may each be a nucleotide sequence from about 10 to about 100 nucleotides in length. In one embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from 10 to about 25 nucleotides in length. In another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 25 to about 50 nucleotides in length. In a further embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 50 to about 75 nucleotides in length. In yet another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 75 to about 100 nucleotides in length. In each embodiment, the nucleotides comprising the linkers may be any of the nucleotide bases in DNA or RNA (A, C, T, G in the case of DNA, or A, C, U, G in the case of RNA). In one embodiment R² and R⁵ are comprised of DNA bases. In another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are comprised of RNA bases. In yet another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are comprised of modified nucleic acid bases, such as modified DNA bases or modified RNA bases. Modifications may occur at, but are not restricted to, the sugar 2′ position, the C-5 position of pyrimidines, and the 8-position of purines. Examples of suitable modified DNA or RNA bases may include 2′-fluoro nucleotides, 2′-amino nucleotides, 5′-aminoallyl-2′-fluoro nucleotides and phosphorothioate nucleotides (monothiophosphate and dithiophosphate). In a further embodiment, R² and R⁵ may be nucleotide mimics. Examples of nucleotide mimics may include locked nucleic acids (LNA), peptide nucleic acids (PNA), and phosphorodiamidate morpholine oligomers (PMO). Alternatively, R² and R⁵ may be a bifunctional chemical linker, or a polymer of bifunctional chemical linkers. In one embodiment the bifunctional chemical linker is heterobifunctional. Suitable heterobifunctional chemical linkers may include sulfoSMCC (sulfosuccinimidyl-4-(N-maleimidomethyl)cyclohexane-1-carboxylate), and lc-SPDP (N-succinimidyl-6-(3′-(2-pyridyldithio)-propionamido)-hexanoate). In another embodiment the bifunctional chemical linker is homobifunctional. Suitable homobifunctional linkers may include disuccinimidyl suberate, disuccinimidyl glutarate, and disuccinimidyl tartrate. Additional suitable linkers may include the phosphoramidate form of Spacer 18 comprised of polyethylene glycol. In one embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from 0 to about 500 angstroms in length. In another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 20 to about 400 angstroms in length. In yet another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 50 to about 250 angstroms in length.

In a further embodiment for molecular biosensors having formula (I), R³ comprises R⁷ and R⁸, and R⁶ comprises R⁹. Generally speaking, except for R⁸ and R⁹, R³ and R⁶ are not complementary. Wand R⁹ are nucleotide sequences that are complementary to each other such that they preferably do not associate unless R¹ and R⁴ bind to separate epitopes on a target molecule. When R¹ and R⁴ bind to separate epitopes of a target molecule, R⁸ and R⁹ are brought into relative proximity resulting in an increase in their local concentration, which drives the association of R⁸ and R⁹.

To ensure that R⁸ and R⁹ only associate when R¹ and R⁴ bind to separate epitopes of a target, R⁸ and R⁹ generally have a length such that the free energy of association is from about −5 to about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In other embodiments, the free energy of association between R⁸ and R⁹ is about −5 kcal/mole, about −6 kcal/mole, about −7 kcal/mole, about −8 kcal/mole, about −9 kcal/mole, about −10 kcal/mole, about −11 kcal/mole, or greater than about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In additional embodiments, R⁸ and R⁹ may range from about 4 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R⁸ and R⁹ may be about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, or greater than about 10 nucleotides in length.

In some embodiments, R³ comprises R⁷—R⁸, such that R⁷ is located 5′ to R⁸. In other embodiments, R³ comprises R⁸—R⁷, such that R⁸ is located 5′ to R⁷.

In an exemplary embodiment, R⁸ and R⁹ are at the 3′ ends of R³ and R⁶, such that association of R⁸ and R⁹ forms a complex where the 3′ ends can be extended using R³ and R⁶ as a template to form a double-stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁷. Polymerases suitable for extending R⁸ and R⁹ are known in the art. For example, non-limiting examples of nucleotide polymerases suitable for extending nucleic acid sequences of the invention may include Bsu DNA Polymerase, DNA Polymerase I (E. coli), DNA Polymerase I Large (Klenow) Fragment, Klenow Fragment (3″→5′ exo-), phi29 DNA Polymerase, T4 DNA Polymerase, T7 DNA Polymerase (unmodified), or any of the thermophilic polymerases, such as the full length or large fragment of Bst DNA Polymerase, Taq DNA Polymerase, 9° N_(m) DNA Polymerase, Crimson Taq DNA Polymerase, Deep VentR™ (exo-) DNA Polymerase, Deep VentR™ DNA Polymerase, DyNAzyme™ EXT DNA Polymerase, DyNAzyme™ II Hot Start DNA Polymerase, Hemo KlenTaq™, Phusion® High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase, Sulfolobus DNA Polymerase IV, Therminator™ DNA Polymerase, VentR® DNA Polymerase.

Generally speaking, for molecular biosensors having formula (I) R³ comprises at least one restriction endonuclease recognition site. In some embodiments, however, R³ may comprise more than one restriction endonuclease recognition site. For instance, R³ may comprise at least two, three, four, or five endonuclease recognition sites. Similarly, R⁶ may comprise at least one, two, three, four or five endonuclease recognition sites.

Typically, a restriction enzyme recognizing a restriction enzyme recognition site cannot cleave or nick a single stranded nucleotide sequence. Association of the epitope binding agents with a target molecule and the subsequent extension of the 3′ ends of R⁸ and R⁹ in the presence of a polymerase forms a double-stranded endonuclease recognition site that may be cleaved or nicked by a restriction endonuclease. As is commonly known by persons skilled in the art, restriction endonucleases may hydrolyze both strands of the nucleic acid duplex to cleave the nucleic acid duplex, or hydrolyze one of the strands of the nucleic acid duplex, thus producing double-stranded nucleic acid molecules that are “nicked”, rather than cleaved. In preferred embodiments of molecular biosensors having formula (I), R⁷ comprises an endonuclease recognition sequence for a nicking restriction enzyme. A nicking restriction endonuclease may hydrolyze the bottom or the top strand of a nucleic acid duplex. By way of non-limiting example, recognition sites for nicking restriction enzymes may include Nt.BstNBI, Nb.BsrD, Nb.BtsI, Nt.AlwI, Nb.BbvCI, Nt.BbvC and Nb.BsmI.

In each of the foregoing embodiments for molecular biosensors having formula (I), the first nucleic acid construct, R¹—R²—R³ and the second nucleic acid construct, R⁴—R⁵—R⁶, may optionally be attached to each other by a linker R^(LA) to create tight binding bivalent ligands. Typically, the attachment is by covalent bond formation. Alternatively, the attachment may be by non covalent bond formation. In one embodiment, R^(LA) attaches R¹ of the first nucleic acid construct to R⁴ of the second nucleic acid construct to form a molecule comprising:

In a further embodiment, R^(LA) attaches R² of the first nucleic acid construct to R5 of the second nucleic acid construct to form a molecule comprising:

In yet another embodiment, R^(LA) attaches R³ of the first nucleic acid construct to R⁷ of the second nucleic acid construct to form a molecule comprising:

Generally speaking, R^(LA) may be a nucleotide sequence from about 10 to about 100 nucleotides in length. The nucleotides comprising R^(LA) may be any of the nucleotide bases in DNA or RNA (A, C, T, G in the case of DNA, or A, C, U, G in the case of RNA). In one embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of DNA bases. In another embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of RNA bases. In yet another embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of modified nucleic acid bases, such as modified DNA bases or modified RNA bases. Modifications may occur at, but are not restricted to, the sugar 2′ position, the C-5 position of pyrimidines, and the 8-position of purines. Examples of suitable modified DNA or RNA bases may include 2′-fluoro nucleotides, 2′-amino nucleotides, 5′-aminoallyl-2′-fluoro nucleotides and phosphorothioate nucleotides (monothiophosphate and dithiophosphate). In a further embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of nucleotide mimics. Examples of nucleotide mimics may include locked nucleic acids (LNA), peptide nucleic acids (PNA), and phosphorodiamidate morpholine oligomers (PMO). Alternatively, RLA may be a bifunctional chemical linker or a polymer of bifunctional chemical linkers. In one embodiment the bifunctional chemical linker is heterobifunctional. Suitable heterobifunctional chemical linkers may include sulfoSMCC (Sulfosuccinimidyl-4-(N-maleimidomethyl)cyclohexane-1-carboxylate), and lc-SPDP (N-Succinimidyl-6-(3′-(2-PyridylDithio)-Propionamido)-hexanoate). In another embodiment, the bifunctional chemical linker is homobifunctional. Suitable homobifunctional linkers may include disuccinimidyl suberate, disuccinimidyl glutarate, and disuccinimidyl tartrate. An exemplary R^(LA) is the phosphoramidate form of Spacer 18 comprised of polyethylene glycol. In one embodiment, R^(LA) is from about 1 to about 500 angstroms in length. In another embodiment, R^(LA) is from about 20 to about 400 angstroms in length. In yet another embodiment, R^(LA) is from about 50 to about 250 angstroms in length.

(b) Means of Detection

As discussed above, when R⁸ and R⁹ are extended in the presence of a polymerase, the newly synthesized double-stranded endonuclease recognition sequence may be nicked by a nicking restriction endonuclease that recognizes the double-stranded restriction enzyme recognition site. A DNA polymerase may then extend a second nucleic acid from the nick, thereby displacing the first nicked strand to form a displaced strand. The second extended strand may then be nicked, repeating the extension and displacement steps such that multiple copies of the displaced strand are produced, thereby amplifying the signal from the biosensor. The displaced strand may then be detected via several different methods. Three such methods are detailed below.

i. Double-Stranded Nucleic Acid Stains

In some embodiments, a displaced strand may be detected and/or quantitated by contacting a displaced strand with a complementary nucleic acid sequence. The resulting double-stranded nucleotide sequence may be detected using nucleic acid staining methods specific for double-stranded sequences. Non-limiting examples of nucleic acid stains that may be used for detecting double-stranded nucleotide sequences may include ethidium bromide, thiazole orange, propidium iodide, DAPI, Hoechst dyes, acridine orange, 7-AAD, LDS 751, hydroxystilbamidine, and cyanine dyes such as TOTO-1, POPO-1, BOBO-1, YOYO-1, JOJO-1, LOLO-1, POPO-3, YOYO-3, TOTO-3, BOBO-3, PicoGreen, SYBR Gold, SYBR Green I and SYBR Green II.

ii. Type IIS Endonuclease Construct

In another embodiment, a displaced strand may be detected and/or quantitated by associating with a Type IIS endonuclease nucleic acid construct. The nucleic acid construct may generally comprise two strands, where the first strand comprises R¹⁰—R¹²—R¹⁴ and the second strand comprises R¹¹—R¹³. R¹⁴ is complementary to the displaced strand, and when associated with a displaced strand, comprises a Type IIS endonuclease recognition site. R¹² is complementary to R¹³, and together, R¹² and R¹³ comprise a cleavage site for a Type IIS endonuclease. R¹² and R¹³ are of such a length that the two strands (i.e. R¹⁰—R¹²—R¹⁴ and R¹¹—R¹³) stay hybridized in the absence of the displaced strand. R¹⁰ and R¹¹ comprise a detection means, such that when R¹² and R¹³ are cleaved by a Type IIS endonuclease, R¹⁰ and R¹¹ are released from the Type IIS endonuclease construct and produce a detectable signal. Suitable detection means for R¹⁰ and R¹¹ may comprise fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET), lanthamide resonance energy transfer (LRET), fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy, fluorescence quenching, fluorescence polarization, flow cytometry, scintillation proximity, luminescence resonance energy transfer, direct quenching, ground-state complex formation, chemiluminescence energy transfer, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer, excimer formation, colorimetric substrates detection, phosphorescence, electrochemical changes, and redox potential changes. (See FIG. 1 E2.)

iii. Linker Construct

In some embodiments, a displaced strand may be detected by a linker construct. Usually, a linker construct comprises R¹⁵—R¹⁶—R¹⁷—R¹⁸—R¹⁹—R²⁰—R²¹. R¹⁸ is a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to the displaced strand, and together with the displaced strand, comprises an endonuclease recognition site. R¹⁷ and R¹⁹ are linkers, and may be defined as R² and R⁵ above. R¹⁶ and R²⁰ are complementary nucleic acid sequences, and may be defined as R⁸ and R⁹ above. R¹⁵ and R²¹ comprise a detection means, and may be defined as R¹⁰ and R¹¹ above. (See FIG. 1 E3)

When R¹⁸ binds to a displaced strand, a double-stranded restriction endonuclease recognition site is formed. In the presence of a restriction endonuclease, R¹⁸ and the displaced strand are cleaved at the endonuclease recognition site. This destabilizes the association of R¹⁶ and R²⁰, resulting in the separation of R¹⁵ and R²¹. This separation results in a detectable and quantifiable change in signal intensity.

II. Three-Component Molecular Biosensors

Another aspect of the invention encompasses a three-component biosensor capable of signal amplification. In a three-component embodiment, analogous to a two-component sensor, detection of a target molecule typically involves target-molecule induced co-association of two epitope-binding agent constructs that each recognize distinct epitopes on the target molecule. Unlike the two-component embodiment, however, the epitope-binding agent constructs each comprise single stranded nucleic acid sequences that are complementary to two distinct regions of the oligonucleotide construct, as opposed to being complementary to each other (as in the two-component sensor). Co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs with a target molecule results in hybridization of each single stranded nucleic acid sequence to the oligonucleotide construct. This tripartite construct comprised of the two single stranded nucleic acid sequences and the oligonucleotide construct reconstitutes a restriction endonuclease recognition site. The endonuclease recognition site may be cleaved in the presence of a restriction endonuclease. Such cleavage destabilizes the association of the single stranded nucleic acid sequences and the (now cleaved) oligonucleotide construct, releasing the single stranded nucleic acid sequences. The single stranded nucleic acid sequences may then bind to another oligonucleotide construct, repeating the cleavage cycle and therefore amplifying the biosensor signal. Importantly, the oligonucleotide construct is capable of producing a detectable signal when cleaved.

In certain embodiments, the three-component molecular biosensor will comprise a solid support. In alternative embodiments, the three-component molecular biosensor will not comprise a solid support. Both of these embodiments are discussed in more detail below. In some embodiments, a three-component molecular biosensor may comprise a plurality of oligonucleotide constructs (e.g. R⁷—R⁸ or R⁷—R⁸—R⁹).

(a) Three Component Molecular Biosensors Comprising a Solid Support

In one embodiment, a three-component molecular biosensor will comprise an oligonucleotide construct attached to a solid support. Generally speaking, co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs with a target molecule results in hybridization of each single stranded nucleic acid sequence to the oligonucleotide construct, producing a tripartite double-stranded nucleic acid molecule that contains a restriction endonuclease recognition site. In the presence of a restriction endonuclease, the oligonucleotide construct may be cleaved to release a signaling molecule from the solid support. (See, for instance, FIG. 3)

For example, in some embodiments the three-component molecular biosensor comprises at least three constructs, which together have formula (II):

R¹—R²—R³;

R⁴—R⁵—R⁶; and

at least one R⁷—R⁸—R⁹;  (II)

wherein:

-   -   R¹ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a first epitope on         a target molecule;     -   R² is a flexible linker attaching R¹ to R³;     -   R³ and R⁶ are a first pair of nucleotide sequences that are         complementary to two distinct regions on R⁸;     -   R⁵ is a flexible linker attaching R⁴ to R⁶;     -   R⁴ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a second epitope on         a target molecule;     -   R⁸ is a nucleotide construct comprising a first region that is         complementary to R³ and a second region that is complementary to         R⁶, such that when R³ and R⁶ associated with R⁸, an endonuclease         restriction site is reconstituted;     -   R⁷ is a signaling molecule; and     -   R⁹ is a solid support.

The choice of epitope binding agents, R¹ and R⁴, in molecular biosensors having formula (II) can and will vary depending upon the particular target molecule. By way of example, when the target molecule is a protein, R¹ and R⁴ may be an aptamer, or antibody. By way of further example, when R¹ and R⁴ are double stranded nucleic acid the target molecule is typically a macromolecule that binds to DNA or a DNA binding protein. In general, suitable choices for R¹ and R⁴ will include two agents that each recognize distinct epitopes on the same target molecule. In certain embodiments, however, it is also envisioned that R¹ and R⁴ may recognize distinct epitopes on different target molecules. Non-limiting examples of suitable epitope binding agents, depending upon the target molecule, may include agents selected from the group consisting of an aptamer, an antibody, an antibody fragment, a double-stranded DNA sequence, modified nucleic acids, nucleic acid mimics, a ligand, a ligand fragment, a receptor, a receptor fragment, a polypeptide, a peptide, a coenzyme, a coregulator, an allosteric molecule, and an ion. In an exemplary embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each aptamers having a sequence ranging in length from about 20 to about 110 bases. In another embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each antibodies selected from the group consisting of polyclonal antibodies, ascites, Fab fragments, Fab′ fragments, monoclonal antibodies, humanized antibodies, chimeric antibodies, and single-chain antibodies. In an alternative embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are peptides. In a preferred embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each monoclonal antibodies. In an additional embodiment, R¹ and R⁴ are each double stranded DNA. In a further embodiment, R¹ is a double stranded nucleic acid and R⁴ is all aptamer. In an additional embodiment, R¹ is an antibody and R⁴ is an aptamer. In another additional embodiment, R¹ is an antibody and R⁴ is a double stranded DNA.

In an additional embodiment for molecular biosensors having formula (II), exemplary linkers, R² and R⁵, will functionally keep R³ and R⁶ in appropriate proximity such that when R¹ and R⁴ each bind to the target molecule, R³ and R⁶ associate with R⁸ producing a detectable signal. R² and R⁵ may each be a nucleotide sequence from about 10 to about 100 nucleotides in length. In one embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 10 to about 25 nucleotides in length. In another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 25 to about 50 nucleotides in length. In a further embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 50 to about 75 nucleotides in length. In yet another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 75 to about 100 nucleotides in length. In each embodiment, the nucleotides comprising the linkers may be any of the nucleotide bases in DNA or RNA (A, C, T, G in the case of DNA, or A, C, U, G in the case of RNA). In one embodiment R² and R⁵ are comprised of DNA bases. In another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are comprised of RNA bases. In yet another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are comprised of modified nucleic acid bases, such as modified DNA bases or modified RNA bases. Modifications may occur at, but are not restricted to, the sugar 2′ position, the C-5 position of pyrimidines, and the 8-position of purines. Examples of suitable modified DNA or RNA bases may include 2′-fluoro nucleotides, 2′-amino nucleotides, 5′-aminoallyl-2′-fluoro nucleotides and phosphorothioate nucleotides (monothiophosphate and dithiophosphate). In a further embodiment, R² and R⁵ may be nucleotide mimics. Examples of nucleotide mimics may include locked nucleic acids (LNA), peptide nucleic acids (PNA), and phosphorodiamidate morpholine oligomers (PMO).

Alternatively, R² and R⁵ may be a bifunctional chemical linker or a polymer of bifunctional chemical linkers. In one embodiment the bifunctional chemical linker is heterobifunctional. Suitable heterobifunctional chemical linkers may include sulfoSMCC (Sulfosuccinimidyl-4-(N-maleimidomethyl)cyclohexane-1-carboxylate), and Ic-SPDP (N-Succinimidyl-6-(3′-(2-PyridylDithio)-Propionamido)-hexanoate). In another embodiment the bifunctional chemical linker is homobifunctional. Suitable homobifunctional linkers may include disuccinimidyl suberate, disuccinimidyl glutarate, and disuccinimidyl tartrate. Additional suitable linkers may include the phosphoramidate form of Spacer 18 comprised of polyethylene glycol. In one embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from 0 to about 500 angstroms in length. In another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 20 to about 400 angstroms in length. In yet another embodiment, R² and R⁵ are from about 50 to about 250 angstroms in length.

R⁷ of formula (II) is a signaling molecule. Suitable signaling molecules are known in the art. Non-limiting examples may include luminescent molecules, chemiluminescent molecules, fluorochromes, fluorescent quenching agents, colored molecules, radioisotopes, scintillants, massive labels (for detection via mass changes), biotin, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, protein G, antibodies or fragments thereof, Grb2, polyhistidine, Ni²⁺, Flag tags, myc tags, heavy metals, enzymes, alkaline phosphatase, peroxidase, luciferase, electron donors/acceptors, acridinium esters, and colorimetric substrates. The skilled artisan would readily recognize other useful labels that are not mentioned above, which may be employed in the operation of the present invention.

For molecular biosensors having formula (II), R⁸ comprises a first region that is complementary to R⁶, and a second region that is complementary to R³. R⁸ may be from about 8 to about 100 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R⁸ is from about 10 to about 15 nucleotides in length, or from about 15 to about 20 nucleotides in length, or from about 20 to about 25 nucleotides in length, or from about 25 to about 30 nucleotides in length, or from about 30 to about 35 nucleotides in length, or from about 35 to about 40 nucleotides in length, or from about 40 to about 45 nucleotides in length, or from about 45 to about 50 nucleotides in length, or from about 50 to about 55 nucleotides in length, or from about 55 to about 60 nucleotides in length, or from about 60 to about 65 nucleotides in length, or from about 65 to about 70 nucleotides in length, or from about 70 to about 75 nucleotides in length, or from about 75 to about 80 nucleotides in length, or from about 80 to about 85 nucleotides in length, or from about 85 to about 90 nucleotides in length, or from about 90 to about 95 nucleotides in length, or greater than about 95 nucleotides in length.

When R³ and R⁶ associate with R⁸, a tripartite double-stranded DNA molecule is formed that contains a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence. In the presence of a restriction endonuclease, R⁸ is cleaved, releasing R⁷ from the solid support R⁹. In an exemplary embodiment, R³ and R⁶ do not form a stable complex with R⁸ after R⁸ is cleaved, freeing R³ and R⁶ to bind to another R⁸ and repeat the cleavage cycle. This amplifies the biosensor signal.

In an exemplary embodiment, R⁸ will comprise formula (III):

R¹⁰—R¹¹—R¹²—R¹³  (III)

wherein:

-   -   R¹⁰ and R¹³ are single-stranded nucleotide sequences not         complementary to any of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, or R⁶;     -   R¹¹ is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R³; and     -   R¹² is a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to R⁶.

In some embodiments, R¹⁰ and R¹³ may independently be from about 0 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R¹⁰ and R¹³ may independently be from about 2 to about 4 nucleotides in length, or from about 4 to about 6 nucleotides in length, or from about 6 to about 8 nucleotides in length, or from about 8 to about 10 nucleotides in length, or from about 10 to about 12 nucleotides in length, or from about 12 to about 14 nucleotides in length, or from about 14 to about 16 nucleotides in length, or from about 16 to about 18 nucleotides in length, or from about 18 to about 20 nucleotides in length, or greater than about 20 nucleotides in length.

Generally speaking, R¹¹ and R¹² have a length such that the free energy of association between R¹¹ and R³ and R¹² and R⁶ is from about −5 to about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In other embodiments, the free energy of association between R¹¹ and R³ and R¹² and R⁶ is about −5 kcal/mole, about −6 kcal/mole, about −7 kcal/mole, about −8 kcal/mole, about −9 kcal/mole, about −10 kcal/mole, about −11 kcal/mole, or greater than about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In additional embodiments, R¹¹ and R¹² may range from about 4 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R¹¹ and R¹² may be about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, or greater than about 10 nucleotides in length.

In one embodiment, when R⁸ comprises formula (III), the cleavage site of the restriction endonuclease recognition sequence produced by the association of R³ and R⁶ with R⁸ is located between R¹¹ and R¹². In this manner, in the presence of a suitable restriction endonuclease, R⁸ will be cleaved between R¹¹ and R¹², but R³ and R⁶ remain intact. Suitable restriction endonuclease recognition sequences are recognized by restriction enzymes that cleave double stranded nucleic acid, but not single stranded nucleic acid. Such enzymes and the corresponding recognition sites are known in the art. By way of non-limiting example, these enzymes may include AccI, AgeI, BamHI, BglI, BglII, BsiWI, BstBI, ClaI, CviQI, DdeI, DpnI, DraI, EagI, EcoRI, EcoRV, FseI, FspI, HaeII, HaeIII, HhaI, HincII, HinDIII, HpaI, HpaII, KpnI, KspI, MboI, MfeI, NaeI, NarI, NcoI, NdeI, NheI, NotI, PhoI, PstI, PvuI, PvuII, SacI, SacI, SalI, SbfI, SmaI, SpeI, SphI, StuI, TaqI, TliI, TfiI, XbaI, XhoI, XmaI, XmnI, and ZraI.

In another exemplary embodiment, R⁸ will comprise formula (IV):

R¹⁰—R¹¹—R¹²—R¹³—R¹⁴—R¹⁵  (IV)

wherein:

-   -   R¹¹, R¹², R¹³, and R¹⁴ are single stranded oligonucleotide         sequences not complementary to each other or any of R¹, R², R³,         R⁴, R⁵, or R⁶;     -   R¹⁰ and R¹⁵ are double-stranded nucleic acid sequences;     -   R¹² is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R³; and     -   R¹³ is a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to R⁶.

R¹¹ and R¹⁴ may independently be from about 0 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R¹¹ and R¹⁴ may independently be from about 2 to about 4 nucleotides in length, or from about 4 to about 6 nucleotides in length, or from about 6 to about 8 nucleotides in length, or from about 8 to about 10 nucleotides in length, or from about 10 to about 12 nucleotides in length, or from about 12 to about 14 nucleotides in length, or from about 14 to about 16 nucleotides in length, or from about 16 to about 18 nucleotides in length, or from about 18 to about 20 nucleotides in length, or greater than about 20 nucleotides in length;

R¹⁰ and R¹⁵ may independently be from about 0 to about 20 base pairs in length. In other embodiments, R¹⁰ and R¹⁵ may independently be from about 2 to about 4 base pairs in length, or from about 4 to about 6 base pairs in length, or from about 6 to about 8 base pairs in length, or from about 8 to about 10 base pairs in length, or from about 10 to about 12 base pairs in length, or from about 12 to about 14 base pairs in length, or from about 14 to about 16 base pairs in length, or from about 16 to about 18 base pairs in length, or from about 18 to about 20 base pairs in length, or greater than about 20 base pairs in length;

R¹² and R¹³ generally have a length such that the free energy of association between R¹² and R³ and R¹³ and R⁶ is from about −5 to about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In other embodiments, the free energy of association between R¹² and R³ and R¹³ and R⁶ is about −5 kcal/mole, about −6 kcal/mole, about −7 kcal/mole, about −8 kcal/mole, about −9 kcal/mole, about −10 kcal/mole, about −11 kcal/mole, or greater than about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In additional embodiments, R¹² and R¹³ may range from about 4 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R¹² and R¹³ may be about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, or greater than about 20 nucleotides in length.

In yet another exemplary embodiment, R⁸ may comprise formula (V):

R¹⁰—R¹¹—R¹²—R¹³—R¹⁴—R¹⁵—R¹⁶  (V)

wherein:

R¹¹, R¹², R¹⁴, R¹⁵ and R¹⁶ are single stranded oligonucleotide sequences independently not complementary to each other or any of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, or R⁶;

-   -   R¹⁰ and R¹³ are double-stranded nucleic acid sequences;     -   R¹¹ is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R³; and     -   R¹⁵ is a nucleotide sequence that is complementary to R⁶.

R¹², R¹⁴ and R¹⁶ may independently be from about 0 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R¹², R¹⁴, and R¹⁶ may independently be from about 2 to about 4 nucleotides in length, or from about 4 to about 6 nucleotides in length, or from about 6 to about 8 nucleotides in length, or from about 8 to about 10 nucleotides in length, or from about 10 to about 12 nucleotides in length, or from about 12 to about 14 nucleotides in length, or from about 14 to about 16 nucleotides in length, or from about 16 to about 18 nucleotides in length, or from about 18 to about 20 nucleotides in length, or greater than about 20 nucleotides in length.

R¹⁰ and R¹³ may independently be from about 0 to about 20 base pairs in length. In other embodiments, R¹⁰ and R¹³ may independently be from about 2 to about 4 base pairs in length, or from about 4 to about 6 base pairs in length, or from about 6 to about 8 base pairs in length, or from about 8 to about 10 base pairs in length, or from about 10 to about 12 base pairs in length, or from about 12 to about 14 base pairs in length, or from about 14 to about 16 base pairs in length, or from about 16 to about 18 base pairs in length, or from about 18 to about 20 base pairs in length, or greater than about 20 base pairs in length.

R¹¹ and R¹⁵ generally have a length such that the free energy of association between R¹¹ and R³ and R¹⁵ and R⁶ is from about −5 to about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In other embodiments, the free energy of association between R¹¹ and R³ and R¹⁵ and R⁶ is about −5 kcal/mole, about −6 kcal/mole, about −7 kcal/mole, about −8 kcal/mole, about −9 kcal/mole, about −10 kcal/mole, about −11 kcal/mole, or greater than about −12 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C. and at a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM. In additional embodiments, R¹¹ and R¹⁵ may range from about 4 to about 20 nucleotides in length. In other embodiments, R¹¹ and R¹⁵ may be about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, or greater than about 10 nucleotides in length.

When R⁸ comprises formula (IV) or formula (V), a cleavage site of a restriction endonuclease recognition sequence produced by the association of R³ and R⁶ with R⁸ may be located within R¹⁰ for either formula (IV) or formula (V), R¹⁵ for formula (IV), R¹³ for formula (V), or a combination thereof. Suitable restriction endonuclease recognition sequences for these embodiments are recognized by restriction enzymes that cleave double stranded nucleic acid outside the recognition sequence of the restriction enzyme. Such enzymes and the corresponding recognition and cleavage sites are known in the art. By way of non-limiting example, these sites may include AcuI, AlwI, BaeI, BbsI, BbvI, BccI, BceAI, BcgI, BciVI, BfuAI, BmrI, BpmI, BpuEI, BsaI, BsaXI, BseRI, BsgI, BsmAI, BsmBI, BsmFI, BspCNI, BspMI, BspQI, BtgZI, CspCI, EarI, EciI, EcoP15I, FokI, HgaI, HphI, HpyAV, MboII, MlyI, MmeI, MmeAIII, PleI, SapI, SfaNI.

In some embodiments for molecular biosensors having Formula (IV) or Formula (V), R⁷ may comprise two signaling molecules, each attached to one strand of a double-stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁸. Cleavage of the restriction enzyme recognition site results in the release and separation of the two signaling molecules, resulting in a detectable and quantifiable change in signal intensity. Exemplary detections means suitable for use in the molecular biosensors include fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET), lanthamide resonance energy transfer (LRET), fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy, fluorescence quenching, fluorescence polarization, flow cytometry, scintillation proximity, luminescence resonance energy transfer, direct quenching, ground-state complex formation, chemiluminescence energy transfer, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer, excimer formation, colorimetric substrates detection, phosphorescence, electrochemical changes, and redox potential changes.

In some embodiments, R⁹ is a solid support having R⁸ attached thereto. Non-limiting examples of suitable solid supports may include microtitre plates, test tubes, beads, resins and other polymers, as well as other surfaces either known in the art or described herein. The solid support may be a material that may be modified to contain discrete individual sites appropriate for the attachment or association of the construct and is amenable to at least one detection method. Non-limiting examples of solid support materials include glass, modified or functionalized glass, plastics (including acrylics, polystyrene and copolymers of styrene and other materials, polypropylene, polyethylene, polybutylene, polyurethanes, TeflonJ, etc.), nylon or nitrocellulose, polysaccharides, nylon, resins, silica or silica-based materials including silicon and modified silicon, carbon, metals, inorganic glasses and plastics. The size and shape of the solid support may also vary without departing from the scope of the invention. A solid support may be planar, a solid support may be a well, i.e. a 384 well plate, or alternatively, a solid support may be a bead or a slide.

R⁸ may be attached to the R⁹ in a wide variety of ways, as will be appreciated by those in the art. R⁸, for example, may either be synthesized first, with subsequent attachment to the solid support, or may be directly synthesized on the solid support. R⁹ and R⁵ may be derivatized with chemical functional groups for subsequent attachment of the two. For example, the solid support may be derivatized with a chemical functional group including, but not limited to, amino groups, carboxyl groups, oxo groups or thiol groups. Using these functional groups, the R⁵ may be attached using functional groups either directly or indirectly using linkers. Alternatively, R⁵ may also be attached to the surface non-covalently. For example, a biotinylated R⁵ can be prepared, which may bind to surfaces covalently coated with streptavidin, resulting in attachment. Alternatively, R⁵ may be synthesized on the surface using techniques such as photopolymerization and photolithography. Additional methods of attaching R⁵ to a surface and methods of synthesizing nucleic acids on surfaces are well known in the art, i.e. VLSIPS technology from Affymetrix (e.g., see U.S. Pat. No. 6,566,495, and Rockett and Dix, “DNA arrays: technology, options and toxicological applications,” Xenobiotica 30(2):155-177, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety).

In each of the foregoing embodiments for molecular biosensors having formula (III), the first nucleic acid construct, R¹—R²—R³ and the second nucleic acid construct, R⁴—R⁵—R⁶, may optionally be attached to each other by a linker R^(LA) to create tight binding bivalent ligands. Typically, the attachment is by covalent bond formation. Alternatively, the attachment may be by non covalent bond formation. In one embodiment, R^(LA) attaches R¹ of the first nucleic acid construct to R⁴ of the second nucleic acid construct to form a molecule comprising:

In a further embodiment, R^(LA) attaches R² of the first nucleic acid construct to R⁵ of the second nucleic acid construct to form a molecule comprising:

In yet another embodiment, RLA attaches R3 of the first nucleic acid construct to R7 of the second nucleic acid construct to form a molecule comprising:

Generally speaking, R^(LA) may be a nucleotide sequence from about 10 to about 100 nucleotides in length. The nucleotides comprising R^(LA) may be any of the nucleotide bases in DNA or RNA (A, C, T, G in the case of DNA, or A, C, U, G in the case of RNA). In one embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of DNA bases. In another embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of RNA bases. In yet another embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of modified nucleic acid bases, such as modified DNA bases or modified RNA bases. Modifications may occur at, but are not restricted to, the sugar 2′ position, the C-5 position of pyrimidines, and the 8-position of purines. Examples of suitable modified DNA or RNA bases include 2′-fluoro nucleotides, 2′-amino nucleotides, 5′-aminoallyl-2′-fluoro nucleotides and phosphorothioate nucleotides (monothiophosphate and dithiophosphate). In a further embodiment, R^(LA) is comprised of nucleotide mimics. Examples of nucleotide mimics include locked nucleic acids (LNA), peptide nucleic acids (PNA), and phosphorodiamidate morpholine oligomers (PMO). Alternatively, RLA may be a polymer of bifunctional chemical linkers. In one embodiment the bifunctional chemical linker is heterobifunctional. Suitable heterobifunctional chemical linkers include sulfoSMCC (Sulfosuccinimidyl-4-(N-maleimidomethyl)cyclohexane-1-carboxylate), and lc-SPDP (N-Succinimidyl-6-(3′-(2-PyridylDithio)-Propionamido)-hexanoate). In another embodiment, the bifunctional chemical linker is homobifunctional. Suitable homobifunctional linkers include disuccinimidyl suberate, disuccinimidyl glutarate, and disuccinimidyl tartrate. An exemplary R^(LA) is the phosphoramidate form of Spacer 18 comprised of polyethylene glycol. In one embodiment, R^(LA) is from about 1 to about 500 angstroms in length. In another embodiment, R^(LA) is from about 20 to about 400 angstroms in length. In yet another embodiment, R^(LA) is from about 50 to about 250 angstroms in length.

(b) Three Component Molecular Biosensors without a Solid Support

In an alternative embodiment of the three-component biosensor, the biosensor does not comprise a solid support. For instance, in some embodiments, the three-component molecular biosensor comprises three constructs, which together have formula (VI):

R¹—R²—R³;

R⁴—R⁵—R⁶; and

at least one R⁷—R⁸;  (VI)

wherein:

-   -   R¹ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a first epitope on         a target molecule;     -   R² is a flexible linker attaching R¹ to R³;     -   R³ and R⁶ are a first pair of nucleotide sequences that are         complementary to two distinct regions on R⁸;     -   R⁵ is a flexible linker attaching R⁴ to R⁶;     -   R⁶ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a second epitope on         a target molecule;     -   R⁸ is a nucleotide construct comprising a first region that is         complementary to R³ and a second region that is complementary to         R⁶, such that when R³ and R⁶ associated with R⁸, an endonuclease         restriction site is reconstituted;     -   R⁷ is a signaling molecule.

R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, and R⁷ may be as defined above for three-component molecular biosensors having formula (II). R⁸ may be as described in Section (II)(a) above.

In some embodiments for molecular biosensors having Formula (VI), R⁷ may comprise two signaling molecules, each attached to one strand of a double-stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁸. Cleavage of the restriction enzyme recognition site results in the release and separation of the two signaling molecules, resulting in a detectable and quantifiable change in signal intensity. Exemplary detections means suitable for use in the molecular biosensors include fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET), lanthamide resonance energy transfer (LRET), fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy, fluorescence quenching, fluorescence polarization, flow cytometry, scintillation proximity, luminescence resonance energy transfer, direct quenching, ground-state complex formation, chemiluminescence energy transfer, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer, excimer formation, colorimetric substrates detection, phosphorescence, electrochemical changes, and redox potential changes.

III. Methods for Utilizing a Molecular Biosensor

A further aspect of the invention encompasses the use of the molecular biosensors of the invention in several applications. In certain embodiments, the molecular biosensors are utilized in methods for detecting one or more target molecules. In other embodiments, the molecular biosensors may be utilized in kits and for therapeutic and diagnostic applications.

In one embodiment, the molecular biosensors may be utilized for detection of a target molecule. The method generally involves contacting a molecular biosensor of the invention with the target molecule. To detect a target molecule utilizing two-component biosensors, the method typically involves target-molecule induced co-association of two epitope-binding agents (present in the molecular biosensor of the invention) that each recognize distinct epitopes on the target molecule. The epitope-binding agents each comprise complementary oligonucleotides. Co-association of the two epitope-binding agents with the target molecule results in annealing of the two complementary oligonucleotides such that a detectable signal is produced. Typically, the detectable signal is produced by any of the detection means known in the art or as described herein. Alternatively, for three-component biosensors, co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs with the target molecule results in hybridization of each signaling oligos to the oligonucleotide construct. Binding of the two signaling oligo to the oligonucleotide construct brings them into proximity such that a detectable signal is produced.

In one particular embodiment, a method for the detection of a target molecule that is a protein or polypeptide is provided. The method generally involves detecting a polypeptide in a sample comprising the steps of contacting a sample with a molecular biosensor of the invention. By way of non-limiting example, the molecular biosensor may comprise two aptamers recognizing two distinct epitopes of a protein, a double stranded polynucleotide containing binding site for DNA binding protein and an aptamer recognizing a distinct epitope of the protein, an antibody and an aptamer recognizing distinct epitopes of the protein, a double stranded polynucleotide containing a binding site for a DNA binding protein and an antibody recognizing a distinct epitope of the protein, two antibodies recognizing two distinct epitopes of the protein, two double stranded polynucleotide fragments recognizing two distinct sites of the protein, two single stranded polynucleotide elements recognizing two distinct sequence elements of another single stranded polynucleotide.

The molecular biosensor may also detect formation of a protein-polynucleotide complex using a double stranded polynucleotide fragment (containing the binding site of the protein) labeled with a first signaling oligonucleotide and the protein labeled with a second signaling oligonucleotide (FIGS. 13 and 14). Or alternatively, the biosensor may comprise a first polynucleotide fragment with a complementary overhang to a second polynucleotide fragment, such that in the presence of a DNA-binding protein, the first polynucleotide fragment associates with the second polynucleotide fragment to create the DNA-binding protein epitope, which allows association of the DNA-binding protein with the DNA-binding protein epitope. The molecular biosensor may also comprise a molecular biosensor that allows for the direct detection of the formation of a protein-protein complex using two corresponding proteins labeled with signaling oligonucleotides.

In another embodiment, the molecular biosensors may be used to detect a target molecule that is a macromolecular complex in a sample. In this embodiment, the first epitope is preferably on one polypeptide and the second epitope is on another polypeptide, such that when a macromolecular complex is formed, the one and another polypeptides are bought into proximity, resulting in the stable interaction of the first aptamer construct and the second aptamer construct to produce a detectable signal, as described above.

DEFINITIONS

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the meaning commonly understood by a person skilled in the art to which this invention belongs. The following references provide one of skill with a general definition of many of the terms used in this invention: Singleton et al., Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology (2nd ed. 1994); The Cambridge Dictionary of Science and Technology (Walker ed., 1988); The Glossary of Genetics, 5th Ed., R. Rieger et al. (eds.), Springer Verlag (1991); and Hale & Marham, The Harper Collins Dictionary of Biology (1991). As used herein, the following terms have the meanings ascribed to them unless specified otherwise.

The term “antibody” generally means a polypeptide or protein that recognizes and can bind to an epitope of an antigen. An antibody, as used herein, may be a complete antibody as understood in the art, i.e., consisting of two heavy chains and two light chains, or be selected from a group comprising polyclonal antibodies, ascites, Fab fragments, Fab′ fragments, monoclonal antibodies, chimeric antibodies humanized antibodies, and a peptide comprising a hypervariable region of an antibody.

The term “aptamer” refers to a polynucleotide, generally a RNA or a DNA that has a useful biological activity in terms of biochemical activity, molecular recognition or binding attributes. Usually, an aptamer has a molecular activity such as binding to a target molecule at a specific epitope (region). It is generally accepted that an aptamer, which is specific in its binding to any polypeptide, may be synthesized and/or identified by in vitro evolution methods

As used herein, “detection method” means any of several methods known in the art to detect a molecular interaction event. The phrase “detectable signal”, as used herein, is essentially equivalent to “detection method.”

The term “epitope” refers generally to a particular region of a target molecule. Examples include an antigen, a hapten, a molecule, a polymer, a prion, a microbe, a cell, a peptide, polypeptide, protein, a nucleic acid, or macromolecular complex. An epitope may consist of a small peptide derived from a larger polypeptide. An epitope may be a two or three-dimensional surface or surface feature of a polypeptide, protein or macromolecular complex that comprises several non-contiguous peptide stretches or amino acid groups.

The term “epitope binding agent” refers to a substance that is capable of binding to a specific epitope of an antigen, a polypeptide, a nucleic acid, a protein or a macromolecular complex. Non-limiting examples of epitope binding agents include aptamers, thioaptamers, double-stranded DNA sequence, peptides and polypeptides, ligands and fragments of ligands, receptors and fragments of receptors, antibodies and fragments of antibodies, polynucleotides, coenzymes, coregulators, allosteric molecules, peptide nucleic acids, locked nucleic acids, phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMO) and ions. Peptide epitope binding agents include ligand regulated peptide epitope binding agents.

The term “epitope binding agent construct” refers to a construct that contains an epitope-binding agent and can serve in a “molecular biosensor” with another molecular biosensor. Preferably, an epitope binding agent construct also contains a “linker,” and an “oligo”. An epitope binding agent construct can also be referred to as a molecular recognition construct.

The term “target molecule,” as used herein, refers to a molecule that may be detected with a biosensor of the invention. By way of non-limiting example, a target may be a biomolecule such as an antigen, a polypeptide, a protein, a nucleic acid, a carbohydrate, or a macromolecular complex thereof. Alternatively, a target may be a hapten, a molecule, a polymer, a prion, a microbe, a cell, or a macromolecular complex thereof.

The term “signaling molecule,” as used herein, refers to any substance attachable to a polynucleotide, polypeptide, aptamer, nucleic acid component, or other substrate material, in which the substance is detectable by a detection method. Non-limiting examples of labels applicable to this invention include but are not limited to luminescent molecules, chemiluminescent molecules, fluorochromes, fluorescent quenching agents, colored molecules, radioisotopes, scintillants, massive labels (for detection via mass changes), biotin, avidin, streptavidin, protein A, protein G, antibodies or fragments thereof, Grb2, polyhistidine, Ni²⁺, Flag tags, myc tags, heavy metals, enzymes, alkaline phosphatase, peroxidase, luciferase, electron donors/acceptors, acridinium esters, and colorimetric substrates. The skilled artisan would readily recognize other useful labels that are not mentioned above, which may be employed in the operation of the present invention.

EXAMPLES

The following examples illustrate various iterations of the invention.

Example 1 Two-Component Molecular Biosensors Comprising a Single Nicking Restriction Endonuclease Recognition Site

This example describes a method for the rapid and sensitive detection of a target molecule using a two-component molecular biosensor. This method is based on the target-driven association of two constructs containing epitope-binding agents that recognize two distinct epitopes of a target (FIG. 1). These two epitope-binding agent constructs each comprise a single-stranded nucleotide sequence. Each single-stranded sequence comprises a complementary 3′ end sequence, and a restriction endonuclease recognition site. The complementary 3′ end sequences are brought into close proximity when the epitope binding agents co-associate with a molecular target, resulting in annealing of the complementary 3′ end sequences such that, when the complementary regions are extended by a nucleotide polymerase, a double-stranded nucleic acid comprising a restriction enzyme recognition site is reconstituted. A nicking restriction endonuclease enzyme that recognizes the reconstituted restriction enzyme recognition site nicks one strand of the newly synthesized nucleic acid duplex. A DNA polymerase extends a second nucleic acid thereby displacing the first displaced strand, and producing a displaced single-stranded nucleic acid. The second extended strand is then nicked and the extension/displacement cycle may be repeated to produce multiple copies of the displaced strand, thereby providing a means of amplifying the signal. The produced nicked strand may then be quantified using one of several different methods. Three possible methods are detailed below.

Double-Stranded Nucleic Acid Stains

The displaced DNA strand may be detected by annealing with a complementary nucleic acid sequence, to form double stranded DNA which may be detected using stains that specifically bind double stranded DNA (FIG. 1 E1).

Detection Using a Type IIS Endonuclease Construct

The displaced DNA strand may be detected by annealing to a type IIS endonuclease construct (FIG. 1 E2). The type IIS endonuclease construct comprises a double-stranded DNA region, and a single-stranded DNA region. The single stranded DNA region of the construct is complementary to the displaced DNA strand, such that when the displaced strand associates with the construct, a type IIS endonuclease recognition site is reconstituted. The construct also comprises a detection means, such that when a type IIS endonuclease cleaves the construct, the detection means are released from the construct, and a detectable signal is produced.

Detection Using a Linker Construct

The displaced strand may be detected by annealing to a linker construct (FIG. 1 E3). In general, a linker construct would comprise a double-stranded DNA region, and a single-stranded DNA region. The linker construct also comprises a detection means linked to a pair of complementary oligonucleotides. The pair of complementary oligonucleotides, and the detection means linked to them, are linked to the double-stranded and single-stranded DNA regions through flexible linkers. The single stranded DNA region of the construct is complementary to the displaced DNA strand, such that when the displaced strand associates with the construct, a double-stranded restriction endonuclease recognition site is reconstituted. In the presence of a restriction endonuclease, double-stranded DNA region and the displaced strand are cleaved at the endonuclease site resulting in the separation of the detection means, and a detectable signal is produced.

Example 2 Two Component Molecular Biosensors Comprising Two Nicking Restriction Endonuclease Recognition Sites

In an alternative embodiment of the target detection method described in Example 1 above, the single-stranded nucleotide sequences of the epitope-binding agent constructs comprise two restriction enzyme recognition sites (FIG. 2). In some embodiments, the restriction sites may be distal to each other (FIG. 2 C1). In these embodiments, DNA polymerase extends the double-stranded nucleic acid producing two displaced strands. The nicking, and the extension/displacement cycle may be repeated to produce multiple copies of the displaced strands to amplify the signal. The displaced strands produced are complementary, and may be detected using stains that specifically bind double stranded DNA (FIG. 2 C2) as described in Example 1 above.

In other embodiments the restriction endonuclease sites may be proximal to each other. In these embodiments, the displaced strands are not complementary to each other, but may be detected by annealing to type IIS endonuclease constructs (FIGS. 2 F1 and F2) or linker constructs (FIGS. 2 G1 and G2) as described in Example 1 above.

Example 3 Validation of Three Component Molecular Biosensor

This example describes a method for the rapid and sensitive detection of a target molecule using a three-component molecular biosensor (FIG. 3). The three component biosensor comprises two epitope-binding agent constructs and a single-stranded oligonucleotide construct comprising a restriction enzyme recognition site. The oligonucleotide construct is immobilized on a solid support and comprises a signaling molecule. Detection of a target molecule typically involves target-molecule induced co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs that each recognizes distinct epitopes on the target molecule. The epitope-binding agent constructs each comprise a single-stranded nucleotide sequence that are not complementary to each other, but are complementary to two distinct regions of an oligonucleotide construct. Co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs with the target molecule results in hybridization of single-stranded nucleotide sequences to distinct regions of the oligonucleotide construct. This tripartite construct comprising the two single-stranded nucleic acid sequences and the oligonucleotide construct reconstitutes a restriction endonuclease recognition site. When a restriction endonuclease cleaves the restriction endonuclease site, releasing the signaling molecule from the solid support for measurement.

To validate the assay described, epitope binding agent constructs were incubated with 0, 10, 20 and 30 nM concentrations of target molecule in the presence of an oligonucleotide construct in a master mix containing the restriction enzyme HincII. The reaction was then loaded onto an agarose gel, and the products of the restriction digestion reaction resolved. The results show that in the absence of target molecule, only 20% of the oligonucleotide construct was digested by the HincII enzyme. Adding increasing concentrations of the target molecule resulted in increasing digestion of the oligonucleotide construct (FIG. 4).

Example 4 Three Component Molecular Biosensor Immobilized on Magnetic Beads

In this example, the oligonucleotide construct described in Example 3 was labeled with FAM, then conjugated with biotin and immobilized on streptavidin magnetic beads (SMB). The oligonucleotide construct was incubated with pre-equilibrated SMB in 50 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCL, 0.02% tween-20, pH 8.0 at room temperature for 50 minutes. The beads were then washed three times. Master mix (2 μl) was added into each tube, and other components were added as detailed in Table 1 below. The final volume of the reaction was 20 μl/tube in 1× reaction buffer (20 mM Tris, 100 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM DTT, 0.2 mg/ml BSA) and HincII. The reaction was incubated at room temperature for 35 minutes, and 10 μl of the reaction was then transferred into a 384-well plate and read at ex. 485 nm, em. 535 nm (FIG. 5).

A similar experiment was performed using an oligonucleotide construct labeled with horse radish peroxidase (HRP). Master mix (2 μl) was added into each tube, and other components were added as detailed in Table 1 below. The final volume of the reaction was 35 μl/tube in 1× reaction buffer (20 mM Tris, 100 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mg/ml BSA) and HincII. The reaction was incubated at room temperature for 40 minutes, and 30 μl of the reaction was then transferred into a 96-well plate and mixed with 40 μl chemiluminescent ELISA substrate, and luminescence read (FIG. 6).

Example 5 Three Component Molecular Biosensor Immobilized on Magnetic Beads and Sequential Addition of Target and Restriction Enzyme

In a variation of the above conditions, the FAM-labeled oligonucleotide construct immobilized on beads was mixed with the epitope binding constructs and the target molecule, and the mixture incubated at RT in binding buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 8.0, 150 mM NaCl₂, 0.02% Tween-20, 0.2 mg/ml BSA) for 20 min, then washed 1× with 50 μl binding buffer. This was followed by the addition of 1×HincII buffer (20 mM Tris, pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM DTT, 0.2 mg/ml BSA) with HincII, for a final volume of 25 μl. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 50 min. HincII-mediated release of FAM signal was measured using 22 μl of the reaction in a 384 well plate (FIG. 7).

Example 6 Three Component Molecular Biosensor Immobilized on Plate Surface

In this Example, a FAM or HRP-labeled oligonucleotide construct described in Example 3 was immobilized on a plate (FIG. 8). The plate was coated with 30 μl of 400 nM streptavidin and incubated overnight at 4° C. The plate was then blocked with 1% BSA at room temperature for 3 hr, and washed with TBS 3 times. This was followed by the addition of 30 μl 200 nM S4, 180 nM S3, 160 nM A2-FAM, and incubated at room temperature for 2.5 hr, then washed with TBS 4 times. 25 μl of each sample was added, followed by 1×HincII buffer (20 mM Tris, pH 8.0, 100 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM DTT, 0.2 mg/ml BSA) and 3 units of HincII enzyme. The reaction was incubated at room temperature for 30 min. For FAM, 20 μl of the reaction was taken into a 384-well plate and read at ex. 485 nm, em. 535 nm (FIG. 9A). For HRP, 20 μl was taken into an ELISA plate, 20 μl of TMB/H₂O₂ mix was added and the OD450 nm was measured (FIG. 9B).

Example 7 Three Component Molecular Biosensor Comprising Signaling Oligonucleotide Construct with Double-Stranded Nucleotide Regions

This Example describes a method for the rapid and sensitive detection of a target molecule using a three-component molecular biosensor (FIG. 10). The three component biosensor comprises two epitope-binding agent constructs and an oligonucleotide construct comprising regions that are double-stranded and regions that are single-stranded. The oligonucleotide construct also comprises two signaling molecules, each attached to one strand of the double-stranded region of the oligonucleotide construct. Detection of a target molecule typically involves target-molecule induced co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs that each recognize distinct epitopes on the target molecule. The epitope-binding agent constructs each comprise non-complementary single-stranded nucleotide sequences that are complementary to two distinct, but contiguous single-stranded regions of the oligonucleotide construct, producing a double-stranded nucleic acid comprising a restriction enzyme recognition site. A type IIS restriction endonuclease enzyme releases the signaling molecule from the double stranded nucleic acid, resulting in a detectable and quantifiable change in signal intensity.

The oligonucleotide construct, the epitope-binding constructs, and the restriction enzyme BcgI were incubated in the presence or absence of molecular target in buffer (100 mM NaCl, 50 mM Tris, pH 7.9, 2 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM DTT, 0.2 mg/ml BSA, 20 μM SAM) in a final reaction volume of 20 μl. The reaction mixture was incubated at room temperature. Samples were taken at time 0 and every 10 minutes for measurement of FAM fluorescence (Table 1 and FIG. 11).

TABLE 1 Signaling 60 nM oligonucleotide construct Epiptope 20 nM oiligonucleotide constrct 1 Epiptope 20 nM oiligonucleotide constrct 1 Molecular target 0 20 nM Bcgl 2 units 2 units  0 min 0 0 10 min 125 393 20 min 345 888 30 min 643 1417 40 min 689 1833 50 min 925 2308 60 min 1086 2594 70 min 1208 2839 80 min 1210 3017 90 min 1508 3321 100 min  1524 3295

Example 8 Three Component Molecular Biosensor Comprising Signaling Oligonucleotide Construct with Double-Stranded Nucleotide Regions, with Amplified Signal

This Example describes a three-component molecular biosensor wherein the three component biosensor comprises two epitope-binding agent constructs and an oligonucleotide construct comprising regions that are double-stranded and regions that are single-stranded. The oligonucleotide construct also comprises two signaling molecules, each attached to one strand of the double-stranded region of the oligonucleotide construct. The single-stranded regions of the oligonucleotide construct of this example are not contiguous, such that the signaling oligonucleotide construct comprises alternating double-stranded and single stranded regions (FIG. 12). Detection of a target molecule typically involves target-molecule induced co-association of two epitope-binding agent constructs that each recognize distinct epitopes on the target molecule. The epitope-binding agent constructs each comprise non-complementary single-stranded nucleotide sequences that are complementary to two distinct non-contiguous regions of the oligonucleotide construct. Co-association of the two epitope-binding agent constructs with the target molecule results in annealing of each signaling oligonucleotide to the oligonucleotide construct, producing a double-stranded nucleic acid comprising a restriction enzyme recognition site. A type IIS restriction endonuclease enzyme releases the signaling molecule from the double stranded nucleic acid, resulting in a detectable and quantifiable change in signal intensity. The restriction endonuclease enzyme also cleaves on the other side of the recognition sequence, within the double-stranded region of the signaling oligo construct resulting in the dissociation of the complex comprising the target and the epitope binding constructs. The complex is now free to associate with a new signaling oligonucleotide construct resulting in amplification of the signal generated from a single target. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A molecular biosensor comprising three constructs, the constructs comprising: R¹—R²—R³; R⁴—R⁵—R⁶; and at least one R⁷—R⁸—R⁹;  (II) wherein: R¹ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a first epitope on a target molecule; R² is a flexible linker attaching R¹ to R³; R³ and R⁶ are a first pair of nucleotide sequences that are complementary to two distinct regions on R⁸; R⁵ is a flexible linker attaching R⁴ to R⁶; R⁴ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a second epitope on a target molecule; R⁸ is a nucleotide construct comprising a first region that is complementary to R³ and a second region that is complementary to R⁶, such that when R³ and R⁶ associate with R⁸, an endonuclease restriction site is reconstituted; R⁷ is a signaling molecule; and R⁹ is a solid support.
 2. The molecular biosensor of claim 1, wherein the free energy for association of R³ and R⁸, and R⁶ and R⁸ are from about 5.5 kcal/mole to about 8.0 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C., and a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM.
 3. The molecular biosensor of claim 1, wherein R³ and R⁶ are independently from about 2 to about 20 nucleotides in length.
 4. The molecular biosensor of claim 1, further comprising a plurality of R⁷-R⁸-R⁹.
 5. A method for determining the presence of a target molecule in a sample, the method comprising: a) combining a molecular biosensor of claim 1 with a target molecule; b) adding a restriction endonuclease that recognizes the double-stranded restriction endonuclease recognition site formed by R³, R⁶ and R⁸; c) measuring the release of the R⁷ signaling molecule from the R⁹ solid support, wherein an increase in signal indicates the presence of a target molecule.
 6. A molecular biosensor comprising a restriction enzyme and three nucleic acid constructs, the nucleic acid constructs comprising: R¹—R²—R³; R⁴—R⁵—R⁶; and at least one R⁷—R⁸;  (II) wherein: R¹ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a first epitope on a target molecule; R² is a flexible linker attaching R¹ to R³; R³ and R⁶ are a first pair of nucleotide sequences that are complementary to two distinct regions on R⁸; R⁵ is a flexible linker attaching R⁴ to R⁶; R⁴ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a second epitope on a target molecule; R⁸ is a nucleotide construct comprising a first region that is complementary to R³ and a second region that is complementary to R⁶, such that when R³ and R⁶ associated with R⁸, an endonuclease restriction site is reconstituted; and R⁷ is a signaling molecule.
 7. The molecular biosensor of claim 6, wherein the free energy for association of R³ and R⁸, and R⁶ and R⁸ are from about −5.5 kcal/mole to about −8.0 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C., and a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM.
 8. The molecular biosensor of claim 6, wherein R³ and R⁶ are independently from about 2 to about 20 nucleotides in length.
 9. The molecular biosensor of claim 6, further comprising a plurality of R⁷-R⁸.
 10. A method for determining the presence of a target molecule in a sample, the method comprising: a) combining a molecular biosensor of claim 6 with a target molecule; b) contacting the molecular biosensor with a restriction endonuclease that recognizes the double-stranded restriction endonuclease recognition site formed by R³, R⁶ and R⁸; c) measuring the release of the R⁷ signaling molecule from R⁸.
 11. A molecular biosensor comprising two constructs, the constructs comprising: R¹—R²—R³; and R⁴—R⁵—R⁶;  (I) wherein: R¹ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a first epitope on a target molecule; R² is a flexible linker attaching R¹ to R³; R³ is a single stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁷ and R⁸; R⁷ is a nucleotide sequence comprising at least one restriction endonuclease recognition site; R⁸ is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁹; R⁶ is a single stranded nucleotide sequence comprising R⁹; R⁹ is a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁸, such that when R⁸ and R⁹ associate to form an annealed complex in the presence of a polymerase, R⁸ and R⁹ are extended by the polymerase to form a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁷, forming at least one double-stranded endonuclease recognition site; R⁵ is a flexible linker attaching R⁴ to R⁶; R⁴ is an epitope-binding agent that binds to a second epitope on a target molecule.
 12. The molecular biosensor of claim 11, wherein the free energy for association of R³ and R⁶ are from about −5.5 kcal/mole to about −8.0 kcal/mole at a temperature from about 21° C. to about 40° C., and a salt concentration from about 1 mM to about 100 mM.
 13. The molecular biosensor of claim 11, wherein R³ and R⁶ are independently from about 2 to about 40 nucleotides in length.
 14. The molecular biosensor of claim 11, wherein R³ comprises at least two restriction endonuclease recognition sites.
 15. The molecular biosensor of claim 11, wherein R⁶ further comprises at least one restriction endonuclease recognition site.
 16. A method for determining the presence of a target molecule in a sample, the method comprising: a) combining a molecular biosensor of claim 11 with a target molecule; b) extending R⁸ and R⁹ to form a nucleotide sequence complementary to R⁷; c) contacting the molecular biosensor with a restriction endonuclease that recognizes R⁷; d) repeating steps b and c to amplify the displaced single-stranded nucleotide sequence. e) measuring the release of the displaced single-stranded nucleotide sequence, wherein an increase in signal indicates the presence of a target molecule. 